History of Minority Rights

With the development of nation-states in the 18th and 19th Centuries, minority groups with distinct ethnic, religious, and linguistic identities began to make efforts to preserve their unique identities. Such efforts gained steam following the end of World War I, when many of the great empires of Europe collapsed and new states were established along ethnic and/or linguistic lines. There was<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">increased pressure</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Tom Lantos Institute. Minority Rights Guide. 2022.</div></div></span>on minority groups to adopt majority languages and cultures due to assimilationist policies by nation-states, economic and industrial advancements, and the often arbitrary drawing of new borders that cut off large populations from their kin-states.

<h6 class="textbox" font-size:14px>A nation-state is a political unit where the majority of its citizens are united by a common national identity, such as ethnicity. This term is more specific than “country”, since a country may be multinational or multicultural.</h6>

For example, the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after the end of World War I resulted in the establishment of new nation-states, such as independent Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia, with significant ethnic and linguistic minorities living within these newly-formed states. Romania, for instance, inherited the formerly Hungarian territory of Transylvania, as well as a large Hungarian population living in this area. As a result, minority issues were a key concern for the League of Nations, the first intergovernmental organization established at the end of World War I and tasked with maintaining world peace. Protecting the rights of minorities living in newly created states and territories in Central and Eastern Europe and the Middle East was seen as a way to ensure stability and security.

<h6 class="textbox" font-size:14px>Intergovernmental organizations are generally composed of member states and established by a treaty that acts as a charter for the organization. Examples of intergovernmental organizations include the United Nations, NATO, the Council of Europe, and the World Health Organization.</h6>

To this end, the League imposed so-called minority treaties on these newly created states as a condition for membership. These treaties generally contained the rights to equality and non-discrimination, the right to citizenship, the right to use one’s own language, and the right to establish minority religious, cultural, and educational institutions. Although these minority treaties were limited in scope and did not establish any universal recognition and application of the rights contained in them, they represent an<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">important step</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Promoting and Protecting Minority Rights: A Guide for Advocates. 2012.</div></div></span>in the establishment of minority rights in international law. 

One of the first such disputes resolved by the League of Nations related to the Åland Islands dispute between Sweden and Finland. The islands were home to a Swedish-speaking population, but belonged to Finland. The islanders wished to exercise their right to self-determination and reunite with Sweden. This was rejected by the Finnish government, which attempted to adopt an autonomy act for the islands, which was in turn rejected by the Åland Islanders. The League of Nations, fearing the destabilization of the Baltic region and an open conflict between Sweden and Finland, stepped in and<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">granted</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Suksi, M. Explaining the Robustness and Longevity of the Åland Example in Comparison with Other Autonomy Solutions. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 2013.</div></div></span>sovereignty over the islands to Finland on the condition that it guaranteed the islanders their rights to use their language, practice their culture, and a system of self-government.

Unfortunately, within a couple of decades, the Holocaust and other atrocities committed against minorities during World War II made it clear that the protections contained in the minority treaties and the League of Nations itself were insufficient. The United Nations was established to replace the dissolved League of Nations, and assume its task of maintaining and promoting world peace.

<h6 class="textbox" font-size:14px>A treaty is binding in that states commit to bind themselves under international law to conform to its provisions. States must ratify a treaty, and submit reports on their compliance with it. A declaration, on the other hand, is a statement simply recognizing certain universal principles, rather than an undertaking of any legal obligations. States do not need to ratify declarations, or submit reports on their compliance with them.</h6>

Since its establishment, the United Nations has<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">adopted</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations. United Nations Charter. 1945.</div><br><br><div>—</div><div>United Nations General Assembly. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 1948.</div><br><br><div>—</div><div>United Nations General Assembly. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. 1948.</div><br><br><div>—</div><div>United Nations General Assembly. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. 1965.</div></div></span>a number of human rights treaties that offer protections to minorities by prohibiting discrimination based on race, religion, and language, as well as the crimes of genocide and ethnic cleansing. Ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities are also<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">given</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations General Assembly. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Article 27. 1966.</div></div></span>the right to enjoy their own cultures, practice their own religions, and speak their own languages. Despite the protections afforded by certain provisions in the UN’s human rights treaties, no legally binding treaty was ever adopted that deals with minority rights specifically. In 1992, the United Nations General Assembly adopted its fullest elaboration of minority rights with the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (UNDM). It is important to note, however, that the Declaration is not a binding treaty and does not impose legal obligations on states.

Although minorities are entitled to enjoy all fundamental human rights on an equal basis with others, and despite the specific minority rights afforded to them in the UNDM, minorities around the world continue to suffer from severe inequalities. For example, the United States Census Bureau<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">reports</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Creamer, J. et al. Poverty in the United States: 2021. United States Census Bureau, 2022.</div></div></span>that the poverty rate among Black and Hispanic people is more than double that among Whites. In the Balkans, upwards of 60% of Roma youth<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">do not attend</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Unesco. Global education monitoring report, 2021, Central and Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia: inclusion and education: all means all. 2021.</div></div></span>secondary school, while national averages are closer to 6% for this indicator. According to the World Health Organization, persons belonging to minorities<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">experience inequalities</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>World Health Organization. Strengthening primary health care to tackle racial discrimination, promote intercultural services and reduce health inequities. 2022.</div></div></span>in accessing healthcare and suffer from poorer health outcomes compared to persons belonging to majority populations. Minorities face inequalities for a wide range of reasons ranging from prejudice, bias, and stereotypes, to historical factors, such as slavery and colonialism, to entrenched power structures that privilege the majority. 

Minorities are disproportionately subjected to human rights violations ranging from discrimination to exclusion from political and economic life, to hate crimes, to genocide. Inequalities related to statelessness, education, economic participation, health and participation in criminal justice in particular can have a devastating effect on the well-being and livelihoods of persons belonging to minorities and on the enjoyment of their other human rights. These five specific issues were selected as they illustrate the wide range of inequalities faced by minorities, which affect the enjoyment of their civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. 

Statelessness

​According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), more than 75% of the world’s known stateless populations<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">belong</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. “This is our home”: Stateless minorities and their search for citizenship. 2017.</div></div></span>to minorities. Examples of stateless minority groups include Russian speakers in Latvia who were denied citizenship after the fall of the Soviet Union, Roma people in North Macedonia, and the Karana, a predominantly Muslim minority in Madagascar.

<h6 class="textbox" font-size:14px>According to the 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, a stateless person is “a person who is not considered as a national by any State under the operation of its law”.</h6>

Statelessness affecting minorities can be the result of deliberate targeting of certain ethnic, religious, or linguistic groups, or based on discriminatory policies and practices that disproportionately affect such groups. In either case, the denial of citizenship to minorities severely limits their opportunity to effectively and meaningfully participate in public life, and to fully realize their human rights. 

Furthermore, the denial of citizenship represents a vicious cycle, as minorities are often denied citizenship due to discriminatory laws and practices, while their lack of citizenship can result in further discrimination, exclusion, and inequality. The denial of citizenship and lack of official documentation impacts the enjoyment of a wide range of other human rights. 

Stateless persons generally face difficulties in accessing public health and social assistance services, education, and employment opportunities, and may not be able to own property or secure housing, take out loans, or travel abroad. As a result, stateless persons face financial insecurity, which can expose them to exploitation and poverty. Stateless persons<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">may also be subjected</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. “This is our home”: Stateless minorities and their search for citizenship. 2017.</div></div></span>to physical violence connected with their stateless status, as well as persecution, detention, or extortion from law enforcement officials when they are unable to produce official identification documents.

Education

​The realization of the right to education is<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">considered</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Minority Rights Group International. State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. 2009.</div><br><br><div>—</div><div>Curtis, M. A world of discrimination: minorities, indigenous peoples and education. Minority Rights Group International, 2009.</div></div></span>a crucial right for minorities. Education represents an important means of escaping the cycle of exclusion and marginalization that minorities often find themselves in. It is a gateway to effective participation in public and economic life. Education also<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">allows</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Minority Rights Group International. State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. 2009.</div><br><br><div>—</div><div>United Nations. Report of the Special Rapporteur on minority issues, Fernand de Varennes: Minorities, equal participation, social and economic development and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. 2021.</div></div></span>minorities to transmit their languages, cultures, and histories, thereby preserving their identity and existence as distinct groups.

Nonetheless, persons belonging to minorities face discrimination and stigma when accessing educational opportunities and are often only provided with poor-quality education. Such inequalities are backed up by<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">data</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Curtis, M. A world of discrimination: minorities, indigenous peoples and education. Minority Rights Group International, 2009.</div></div></span>: of the 101 million children out of school, and the approximately 776 million illiterate adults, the majority belong to ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. The former UN Special Rapporteur on the right to education, Katarina Tomasevski, developed the “four As” framework, by which education must be available (free and government-funded), accessible (non-discriminatory and accessible to all), acceptable (culturally appropriate and good-quality), and adaptable (evolving with society). Nevertheless, education for minorities often<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">does not meet</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Curtis, M. A world of discrimination: minorities, indigenous peoples and education. Minority Rights Group International, 2009.</div></div></span>this criteria. Minority children have reduced or lack access to schooling due to discriminatory national laws or policies, poverty, and a lack of or inadequate educational institutions in the areas in which they live. When schooling is available, the language of instruction is often the majority language, rather than the mother tongues of persons belonging to minorities. Minority children may face discrimination or abuse from fellow students or even teachers. Meanwhile, educational institutions for minorities are often underfunded and overcrowded, and lack the necessary teaching materials, facilities, and qualified teachers. Such inequalities in education in relation to minorities perpetuate the cycle of poverty and exclusion faced by minorities and hinder their effective participation in public and economic life.

The case of Romania, a state that provides relatively strong support for minority language education, primarily Hungarian, demonstrates how inequalities within education for minorities can lead to poorer outcomes for minority students. Romanian law<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">recognizes</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Constantin, S. Linguistic policy and national minorities in Romania. Noves SL. Revista de Sociolingüística, 2004.</div></div></span>the right of minority language education at all levels, encourages the formation of separate minority schools, and provides minorities with some control over the educational process. At the same time, data shows that the qualification of teaching faculty in Hungarian schools is lower than the national average. Moreover, the quality of infrastructure was found to be lower in Hungarian classrooms, which are generally more poorly equipped with teaching equipment and modern technologies. Hungarian students also had a<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">lower success rate</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Statement of Tamas Kiss, Romanian Institute for Research on National Minorities, United Nations Forum on Minority Issues, 12th Session, Geneva, Switzerland, 27-29 November 2019.</div></div></span>on official examinations (54% compared to the national average of 63%), which leads to the fact that they are underrepresented in institutions of higher education.

Economic participation

​According to Article 2 of the<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">UNDM</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations General Assembly. Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. 1992.</div></div></span>, “persons belonging to minorities have the right to participate effectively […] in economic […] life.” Nevertheless, minorities often face exclusion in economic life due to inequalities stemming from statelessness and a lack of educational opportunities, as mentioned above, as well as to a variety of other factors, such as stigma, discrimination, and exclusionary laws and practices.

<h6 class="textbox" font-size:14px>Participation in economic life covers a wide range of issues, and implies that minorities should have equal and equitable access to the labor market, business, self-employment, property rights, and other related areas.</h6>

Data from countries ranging from Benin to Guatemala to Vietnam<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">shows</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Lynch, A. et al. Who is being left behind in Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America?. Overseas Development Institute, 2016.</div></div></span>that national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities are disproportionately represented among the poorest and most economically disadvantaged groups, and are much more likely to live in poverty.

Economic inequality is manifested in a number of different ways. Discrimination against minorities in the field of employment is widespread, with many being passed over for employment opportunities on the basis of their ethnic, religious, or linguistic identity. Persons belonging to minorities are also underrepresented within public institutions, such as law enforcement agencies, judiciaries, and state ministries. Many minorities live in poor and/or remote regions of their countries, with<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">limited</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations General Assembly. Note by the independent expert on minority issues, Gay McDougall, on minorities and effective participation in economic life. 2010.</div></div></span>employment and economic development opportunities. In addition, persons belonging to minorities are often excluded from decision-making on economic and development projects and initiatives that affect them. When minorities are not consulted on, given the opportunity to consent to, and provided compensation for such activities, this often<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">results</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations General Assembly. Note by the independent expert on minority issues, Gay McDougall, on minorities and effective participation in economic life. 2010.</div></div></span>in the exploitation of their lands, environmental damage, forced displacement, and violence.

Inequalities related to the economic participation of minorities<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">affect</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations General Assembly. Report of the Special Rapporteur on minority issues, Fernand de Varennes: Minorities, equal participation, social and economic development and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. 2021.</div></div></span>the realization of their other human rights. A lack of economic opportunities and increased poverty stemming from their economic exclusion can hamper their access to health services, education, political participation, and access to justice. Economic inequality also leaves minorities more vulnerable to exploitation, hunger, violence, and other abuses.

Health

​The recent COVID-19 pandemic has brought to light the severe health-related inequalities that minority communities face around the globe. The pandemic had a wide range of disproportionate, adverse impacts on persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. For example, data from the United States<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">shows</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases. COVID-19 in racial and ethnic minority groups. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020.</div></div></span>that Native American and Black persons are 5 times more likely to be hospitalized due to COVID-19, while Hispanic and Latino persons are 4 times more likely to be hospitalized. Persons belonging to minorities also suffered from higher death rates than majority communities. They faced increased poverty due to COVID-related emergency restrictions and the resulting economic downturn. Persons belonging to minorities were also the<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">targets</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. COVID-19 and Minority Rights: Overview and Promising Practices. 2020.</div></div></span>of hate speech, hate crimes, and stigma due to baseless accusations that they were “responsible” for the pandemic.

Beyond the COVID-19 pandemic, minorities are faced with acute inequalities in relation to health and are often denied the full realization of their right to health. A wide range of factors contribute to this situation. Racism, stigma, and other systemic barriers in healthcare systems and society in general often mean that minorities are left behind in public health and prevention measures. Furthermore, they may avoid seeking care or drop out of treatment due to distrust of the healthcare system and medical workers, language barriers, or culturally insensitive medical practices. 

Minorities also often have<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">higher rates</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases. COVID-19 in racial and ethnic minority groups. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020.</div></div></span>of chronic illness and other underlying medical conditions that put them at greater risk of death or other severe illnesses. The living conditions of minorities can have a negative impact on their health. Minorities often live in<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">segregated areas</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases. COVID-19 in racial and ethnic minority groups. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020.</div></div></span>with higher levels of exposure to pollution and environmental hazards, and are over-represented among homeless populations, prisoners, and detainees, resulting in poorer health outcomes among minority groups. Finally, economic factors can also contribute to the health inequities faced by persons belonging to minorities. Lower-income and educational levels, and unemployment<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">affect</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases. COVID-19 in racial and ethnic minority groups. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020.</div></div></span>access to and the quality of medical care for minorities.

Criminal Justice System

The Black Lives Matter movement, which originated in the United States in response to police brutality and racially motivated violence against black people, has brought the issue of inequalities in criminal justice systems to widespread international attention. National or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities face discrimination and inequalities within criminal justice systems for a variety of reasons ranging from widespread racism to structural failures within policing and justice systems. In the United States, for example,<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">black people</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Criminal Justice Fact Sheet.</div></div></span>are 2.5 times more likely to experience the use of non-fatal force than white people, while their death rates from police violence are similarly higher. Black people are incarcerated at a rate 5 times more than white people. Despite representing only 13% of the total population, 35% of the people who have been executed in the last 40 years were black.

Although international human rights law prohibits discrimination in the justice system and imposes obligations on states to ensure that justice systems take into account the specific situations of minorities, minorities around the world face a wide range of inequalities at all stages of the criminal justice system.  As the example of the United States shows, minorities are<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">often subjected</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations General Assembly. Effective promotion of the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. 2015.</div></div></span>to discrimination at the stage of policing, including arbitrary stops and arrests, and the use of force and other ill treatment. Minorities also<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">face</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations General Assembly. Effective promotion of the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. 2015.</div></div></span>a number of barriers to equal treatment and non-discrimination in judicial processes. They may not have the resources to hire lawyers, and are more likely to rely on free legal aid. Linguistic minorities, in particular, may be disadvantaged, as in many cases they are not able to fully understand the language of proceedings, when the use of minority languages<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">is not guaranteed</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations General Assembly. Effective promotion of the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. 2015.</div></div></span>by legal systems. Discrimination on the part of judges, prosecutors, and juries can also influence legal proceedings in relation to minorities, and result in higher levels of incarceration, longer sentences, and other unequal treatment. When minorities are the victims of crimes, they are often<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">unable</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations General Assembly. Effective promotion of the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. 2015.</div></div></span>to seek justice. Police may be less inclined to investigate crimes against minorities, or minorities themselves may be reluctant to report crimes due to a fear of discrimination and revictimization by law enforcement officials. Such factors can<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">further contribute</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations General Assembly. Effective promotion of the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. 2015.</div></div></span>to the inequalities faced by minorities in everyday life, as they are more vulnerable to discrimination, violence, and other mistreatment, particularly when such human rights violations are met with impunity.

​In recent years, academics and activists have begun examining new issues related to minority rights, for example, how intersectional discrimination and climate change affect persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. As minority issues continue to be relevant in the modern world, exploring minority rights from different perspectives, and looking into how emerging issues, such as climate change, exacerbate inequalities and affect the lives of persons belonging to minorities will be crucial to addressing the marginalization and exclusion that they continue to face.​

Intersectionality

​Intersectionality is a framework used in academia for examining how a person’s various identities can overlap and exacerbate inequalities and oppression and result in multiple, overlapping forms of discrimination, stigma, and exclusion. The concept of intersectionality has its<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">roots</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations Network on Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. Guidance Note on Intersectionality, Racial Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, United Nations Network on Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. 2022.</div></div></span>in the civil rights movement of the 1950s-60s, and was later used by Black feminists in the 1980s to explore the racial and gender discrimination faced by Black women in the United States. Since then, intersectionality has assumed a greater role in human rights discourse, and in the field of anti-discrimination. In relation to minorities, intersectionality provides a framework for exploring how persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities may be subjected to multiple, intersecting forms of discrimination and exclusion due to their other statuses, such as sexual orientation, gender identity, disability, migrant status, age, sex, caste, and others.

​An intersectional approach is considered<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">essential</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations Network on Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. Guidance Note on Intersectionality, Racial Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, United Nations Network on Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. 2022.</div></div></span>by many to tackle the inequalities and discrimination faced by persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. Most often, persons affected by intersectional discrimination belong to the most marginalized segments of the population, may face discrimination from other members of their minority group due to their other status(es), and are in need of targeted policies and programs to address and prevent discrimination. Intersectional approaches to address such discrimination and inequalities while taking into account diversity within minority groups can be a<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">useful way</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations Network on Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. Guidance Note on Intersectionality, Racial Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, United Nations Network on Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. 2022.</div></div></span>to promote greater inclusion of persons affecting by intersectional discrimination in the development of policies and programs affecting them. A number of practical measures can help to<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">guarantee</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>United Nations Network on Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. Guidance Note on Intersectionality, Racial Discrimination & Protection of Minorities, United Nations Network on Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. 2022.</div></div></span>that intersectionality is taken into account. These include: collecting and analyzing disaggregated data on people who experience inequality and discrimination, and documenting their experiences; creating safe spaces where people affected by intersectional forms of discrimination can voice their issues and concerns; enacting legal reforms to combat discrimination and inequality; raising awareness about human rights, and various forms of intolerance; and providing trainings and other educational activities to relevant stakeholders on non-discrimination, intersectionality, inclusion, and equality. In addition, recognizing intersectional experiences and perspectives in schools and universities can make these spaces more inclusive, and being to tackle inequalities faced by those who face intersectional discrimination.

Climate Justice

​Climate change and its impact on society, the environment, and natural resources are already being felt around the world. As with many other current challenges, the effects of climate change reinforce existing inequalities and disproportionately affect populations that are already suffering from discrimination, including persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities, and indigenous peoples. Climate justice, which entails a response to climate change that is based on respect for human rights, is a pressing issue for minorities who are already living with many of the adverse effects of our changing climate.

<h6 class="textbox" font-size:14px>Indigenous peoples, who are often in non-dominant positions and numerically inferior, can be minorities, but are also distinguished by specific histories and experiences with settler colonization, and deep-rooted ties to traditional lands.</h6>

​As discussed in previous sections, minorities experience increased vulnerability due to inequalities, discrimination, and exclusion. This is also true with climate change. As a result of the discrimination and inequalities they face, many minorities live in poverty in<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">at-risk locations</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Minority Rights Group International. Minority and Indigenous Trends 2019: Focus on Climate Justice. 2019.</div></div></span>within urban areas or the countryside. Their settlements are disproportionately affected by extreme weather, flooding, and other environmental hazards. In addition, due to systemic discrimination, including within state policies and programs, minorities are often excluded from efforts to prevent climate-related disasters or responses when disasters occur. Language barriers can also<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">exacerbate</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Minority Rights Group International. Minority and Indigenous Trends 2019: Focus on Climate Justice. 2019.</div></div></span>the effects of climate change, when governments fail to provide information in minority languages about prevention measures or warnings of extreme climate-related events.

​Many minority groups, in particular indigenous peoples, have a close relationship with the environment and depend on local natural resources for their livelihoods, for example, groups living in Arctic regions or rain forests. As a result, minorities are often<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">susceptible</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Minority Rights Group International. Minority and Indigenous Trends 2019: Focus on Climate Justice. 2019.</div></div></span>to the effects of climate change, which can have devastating impacts on their access to water, land, and food, leaving them unable to sustain their traditional livelihoods and ways of life. Finally, the right to effective participation of persons belonging to minorities is often curtailed in relation to climate change. This can include using and exploiting their lands without prior consultation and consent in the name of conservation, as well as their exclusion from global governance structures tasked with addressing climate change. As a result, historical discrimination and exclusion faced by minorities is perpetuated even within the context of new global challenges, such as climate change.

Around the world persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities continue to face discrimination and suffer from inequalities in many areas of life. They are often at risk of human rights violations, economic insecurity, lower educational levels, poorer health, and a lack of access to justice. Minorities with intersectional identities, such as minorities with disabilities, LGBT minorities, and minority women and girls are in particularly vulnerable situations. Meanwhile, current issues, such as climate change, often have a disproportionate negative impact on minorities. Minority issues and the protection of the human rights of minorities have wider relevance beyond just minorities themselves. For instance, addressing inequalities and promoting inclusive societies are key factors in ensuring peaceful societies and preventing conflict. Indeed, many of the conflicts ongoing today have a minority dimension, such as the war in Ukraine or the civil conflict in Ethiopia. Protecting the rights of minorities is one way to prevent such violence from taking place. 

Protecting and promoting diversity, in part by protecting the rights of minorities and ensuring their inclusion in fields such as education, public administration, and economic life, can also affect the wider society in general. Minorities can contribute their diverse perspectives, knowledge, and experiences in a variety of areas to strengthen society and its institutions, and improve its problem-solving capacity. Responding to climate change and global warming is just one example of this. Many minority groups, particularly indigenous peoples,<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">maintain</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Minority Rights Group International. Minority and Indigenous Trends 2019: Focus on Climate Justice. 2019.</div></div></span>traditional practices and knowledge systems, and unique understandings of their ecosystems that allow them to respond to environmental changes, and live sustainably off natural resources. Responses to climate change and global warming, as well as efforts to promote sustainably, are beginning to recognize the role that minority communities can play in<span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">developing strategies</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Minority Rights Group International. Minority and Indigenous Trends 2019: Focus on Climate Justice. 2019.</div></div></span>to protect our ecosystems. These are just a few examples of how respect for minority rights, ensuring the participation of minorities in economic and public life, and reducing inequalities in education, health, justice, and other areas can contribute to more stable and robust societies.

‍