The following text is based on an interview

What Is Liberalism?

Classical liberalism is a political and philosophical ideology that emphasizes individual rights and limited government intervention in economic affairs. In general, it places a great emphasis on the protection of civil liberties, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and the rule of law. Moreover, liberalism usually supports a democratic system and a free-market economy.

The majority of scholars place the origins of liberalism with John Locke and Thomas Hobbes — two 17th century British philosophers — who called for <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">a different approach to the state</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Ryan, A. The Making of Modern Liberalism. 50 Choice Reviews Online 50, 2013.</div></div></span>.

Liberalism has also been important in relation to individual women’s rights: an example is the work of John Stewart Mill, an important British liberal thinker. He was one of the first philosophers in Europe to speak about women’s freedom and women’s rights, which very much influenced the suffragette movement and what followed. 

How Has Liberalism Adapted Over Time?

Liberalism has changed over time based on different cultural and historical contexts  in different countries. Political liberalism and economic liberalism, while sharing a common historical lineage, diverge in their focus and objectives. 

Political liberalism centers on principles of individual rights, democratic governance, and the rule of law, as exemplified by philosophers like John Locke. In contrast, economic liberalism, as articulated by figures such as Adam Smith, emphasizes free-market principles, limited government intervention, and the belief in the efficiency of market mechanisms to promote economic prosperity. While political liberalism addresses issues of governance and civil liberties, economic liberalism pertains more specifically to economic policies and the role of the state in the <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">market economy</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Gutmann A. Liberalism, International Encyclopedia of Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier, 2001.</div></div></span>.

Initially, liberalism focused mostly on economic exchange and on individual rights. Hereafter, liberalism underwent a transformative evolution into capitalism, which represents a distinct shift in its understanding of social relationships and market dynamics. This transition extended beyond the traditional exchange of goods between individuals. Capitalism introduced a more intricate framework wherein the market transcended its concrete manifestations, assuming the characteristics of an abstract entity. In the context of this evolution, Karl Marx's conceptualization of commodities and commodification is particularly illuminating. Marx argued that in a capitalist system, commodities are not simply physical goods but have a dual nature: they have use-values and exchange-values. The use-value pertains to the inherent utility or functionality of a commodity, for example, a fishing rod, which can be used to catch fish. While the exchange-value reflects its worth in terms of other commodities, for example, gold, which can be exchanged for different quantities of various things. This encapsulates the abstract nature of <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">value within the market</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Milios, J. Value Form and Abstract Labor in Marx: A Critical Review of Alfred Sohn-Rethel’s Notion of “Real Abstraction.” Springer, 2020.</div></div></span>.

Furthermore, Marx contended that commodification extends beyond the physical goods themselves to include labor power. In a capitalist society, labor becomes a commodity that is subjected to market forces and alienated from the workers who produce it. This commodification process, according to Marx, contributes to the dehumanization of social relationships, where individuals and their labor are reduced to commodities to be bought and sold in the abstract market.

Thus, the transition from liberalism to capitalism not only redefined economic transactions, but also paved the way for Marx's critique of the commodification inherent in capitalist systems, shedding light on the profound socio-economic changes that accompanied this evolution.

Capitalism then evolved into what we call today neoliberalism in the mid-20th century; although, again, this is understood and implemented differently in different socio-political contexts.

Neoliberalism is an economic and political philosophy that is associated with a belief in free-market capitalism, limited government intervention in the economy, and an emphasis on individual entrepreneurship and competition. Like any complex ideology, neoliberalism has both positive and negative aspects, and span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">perspectives on its impact vary</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Moosa, I. Financialisation, Neoliberalism and Globalisation. Edward Elgar, 2023.</div></div></span>.

Neoliberal policies are often credited with fostering economic growth by promoting market efficiency, innovation, and competition. Proponents argue that these factors contribute to overall prosperity and that minimal government intervention allows markets to allocate resources more efficiently. Neoliberalism places a strong emphasis on individual freedoms, including economic freedom. Advocates argue that reducing government interference allows individuals to make choices in the marketplace, <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">promoting personal and economic liberty</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Moosa, I. Financialisation, Neoliberalism and Globalisation. Edward Elgar, 2023.</div></div></span>.

On the other hand, one of the major criticisms of neoliberalism is its association with growing income inequality. Critics argue that policies favoring the wealthy and corporations can lead to a concentration of wealth in the hands of a few. They contend that neoliberal policies may neglect social issues and public welfare, leading to insufficient investment in education, healthcare, and social safety nets, and disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations. Neoliberalism assumes that markets will self-regulate, but critics argue that this can lead to market failures, such as financial crises and environmental degradation, due to the lack of regulatory oversight. Indeed, some critics assert that neoliberal policies may undermine democratic governance by concentrating economic power in the hands of a few powerful corporations and limiting the ability of governments to regulate in the public interest. The emphasis on privatization and reducing the role of the state may result in the erosion of public services, with critics arguing that this can lead to the <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">prioritization of profit over the public good</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Mexhuani, B. The Cost of Neoliberalism: How Economic Policies Are Undermining Democracy. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 2024.</div></div></span>.

Neoliberalism's emphasis on free-market principles and limited government intervention has also sparked debates regarding its impact on human rights, with critics contending that economic policies associated with neoliberalism can potentially undermine social equality and essential human rights. Neoliberalism's impact on human rights is exemplified by policies such as labor deregulation, austerity measures, the privatization of essential services, income inequality, and the potential infringement on indigenous rights, sparking debates over the balance between economic principles and the <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">safeguarding of fundamental human rights</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Macnaughton, G. Equality Rights beyond Neoliberal Constraints. Cambridge University, 2019.</div></div></span>.

The following text is based on an interview

What is Socialism?

Socialism is a political ideology that seeks to promote economic equality and social justice. In its approach to human rights, its focus is on systems of inequalities. Socialism also places <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">an emphasis on healthcare, education, and housing</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Kopeček, M. The Socialist Conception of Human Rights and Its Dissident Critique.  46 East Central Europe 261, 2019.</div></div></span>.

Socialism and communism grew together in Europe. The year 1848 witnessed the first revolutions against the monarchy in Italy, France, and Germany: those revolutions were led by socialist ideals. While socialism advocated for a more just economic and legal system, communists (through Karl Marx’s Manifesto) were critical of socialists, i.e., while socialists were acting within the system of the state, communists wanted to change the <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">state system of power altogether</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Marx, K. Manifesto. Scottish National Party, 2001.</div></div></span>.

For Marx, the law was a tool of the bourgeois to maintain power and the oppression of the proletariat. He believed that once the system of oppression is destroyed, <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">the law would become redundant</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Marx, K. Manifesto. Scottish National Party, 2001.</div></div></span>.

Socialists emphasize social justice as an essential component of human rights. For example, socialists advocate for the equitable distribution of wealth, opportunities, resources, fair wages, and helping <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">the most vulnerable groups in the community</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Kopeček, M. The Socialist Conception of Human Rights and Its Dissident Critique. 46 East Central Europe 261, 2019.</div></div></span>.

Socialism and Human Rights

The intricate relationship between socialism and human rights is contingent on the nuanced interpretation and application of socialist principles, which span a spectrum <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">from democratic socialism to more authoritarian variants</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Kopeček, M. The Socialist Conception of Human Rights and Its Dissident Critique. 46 East Central Europe 261, 2019.</div></div></span>.

In favor of socialism and human rights, there exists a narrative emphasizing positive aspects: economic equality, for instance, takes center stage, as socialism often champions the reduction of economic inequality through the advocacy of wealth and resource redistribution. Proponents argue that this contributes significantly to the realization of economic and social rights. They contend that initiatives such as universal healthcare, education, and social security fortify human rights fulfillment, particularly in the realms of social and economic well-being. Workers' rights are spotlighted, aligning with socialist ideologies that underscore the importance of fair wages, safe working conditions, and collective bargaining. This emphasis resonates with the <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source"> broader principles of economic and social justice</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Kopeček, M. The Socialist Conception of Human Rights and Its Dissident Critique. 46 East Central Europe 261, 2019.</div></div></span>.

On the contrary, critiques against socialism and its impact on human rights also emerge, such as concerns about individual liberties and centralized state control in authoritarian regimes. Challenges related to limited political pluralism are highlighted, as some socialist regimes face criticism for restricting political diversity and suppressing opposition. Such actions can undermine political rights and freedoms. However, those challenges are associated with socialist authoritarian regimes. It is crucial to acknowledge the diversity within socialism, ranging from democratic and decentralized forms to more centralized and authoritarian iterations. The impact on human rights is inherently tied to how socialist principles are implemented and balanced against considerations such as individual freedoms and political pluralism. In practice, the relationship between socialism and human rights unfolds within the specific policies and practices of the <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">governing body in question</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Kopeček, M. The Socialist Conception of Human Rights and Its Dissident Critique. 46 East Central Europe 261, 2019.</div></div></span>.

Socialists don't criticize individual rights, but they state that individual rights alone are not enough. They also place more importance on cultural relativism than liberals. However, at times, liberal countries like the UK are sometimes less restrictive than more socialist countries like France and Germany in relation to freedom of religion, for example.

The Development of Socialism Over Time

There have been two developments in socialism over time: the academic development and the political development, and both have been very different. On the academic level, there are a lot of new studies based on socialist ideas on how to better the system. These may consider <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">the environment and new forms of economy, for example</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Huang H. Using Socialist Ideas to Help the World Health Organization Deal with International Relations and Develop New Policies to Improve the Health Care System. 3 Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media 667, 2023.</div></div></span>. On the political level, before, socialist ideas were at the forefront of certain political dialogues; however, today, neoliberalism has become a prominent ideology, even in more socialist political systems, creating different hybrids. Social neoliberalism represents a hybrid approach that combines market-oriented economic policies with a recognition of the need for social safety nets, and its political development involves a pragmatic blending of neoliberal principles with a commitment to addressing social issues, aiming to strike a balance between economic efficiency and social welfare.

The following text is based on an interview

What is Anarchism?

Anarchism is a political ideology that advocates for the abolition of hierarchical structures of power, including the state. It envisions a society based on voluntary cooperation, mutual aid, and individual freedom. Therefore, in the context of human rights, anarchism emphasizes the importance of individual autonomy, equality, and the elimination of what is considered a system of oppression. Behind anarchist ideas is the destruction of the nation state. Anarchists believe that many problems arise from this form of governance and organization, especially problems experienced by minorities. Anarchists also advocate for the creation of a system in which <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">democracy is more direct</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Newman S. The Horizon of Anarchy: Anarchism and Contemporary Radical Thought. 13 Theory & Event, 2010.</div></div></span>.

Murray Bookchin is a famous proponent of this idea. He advocated for a society based on direct democracy. For example, in a city, instead of having a mayor, each area is directly governed by groups of people that represent all parts of the society, e.g., women, men, different religions, etc. In this system, smaller places are linked to bigger places via a direct administration. His ideas inspired the revolution in Rojava, which is one of the few real-world examples we have of an anarchist system in practice, although it is still deeply under-researched.

Anarchism and Human Rights

Anarchism does not reject human rights and focuses on individual rights in particular.

For Chomsky, another renowned scholar, anarchism aligns with the concept of human rights in relation to providing individual autonomy, self-determination, and the rejection of the oppressive systems of power; however, he criticizes the concentration of power in the hands of human rights institutions and/or governments.

Thus, he is essentially challenging the traditional notion of human rights insofar as they have to be enforced and protected by the state. Chomsky argues that a participatory society can uphold and promote human rights more effectively than state institutions.

Anarchists argue that there is too much of a legalist approach to human rights and that freedom, justice and equality can be achieved through direct participation in democracy rather than through legal institutions. Thus, they criticize the <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">institutional system of human rights</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Kinna R. From New Anarchism to Post-Anarchism. Edinburgh University, 2016.</div></div></span>.

How Has Anarchism Developed Over Time?

The intellectual origins of anarchism can be traced to key figures who laid the groundwork for this political philosophy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) is often regarded as the first self-proclaimed anarchist. <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">Proudhon's work</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Proudhon, P. What is Property? An Inquiry into the Principle of Right and of Government. The Anarchist Library, 1840.</div></div></span> criticized private property and envisioned a society based on voluntary cooperation and mutualism or working together. Another important thinker is Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876) who emphasized the abolition of both the state and capitalism in favor of a decentralized, self-governing society. Furthermore, Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921) emphasized the importance of cooperation and mutual aid in social evolution. He advocated for anarcho-communism, envisioning a society based on <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">communal ownership and distribution of resources</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Kropotkin, PA. Anarchism in Socialistic Evolution. Freedom Publications.</div></div></span>. Emma Goldman (1869–1940) is another central figure. She was an influential anarchist and feminist thinker. Goldman's writings and speeches advocated for a wide range of social issues, including labor rights, free love, and opposition to war. Her work, which includes <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">Anarchism and Other Essays (1910)</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Kinna R. From New Anarchism to Post-Anarchism. Edinburgh University, 2016.</div></div></span>, contributed significantly to the development of anarchism in the United States.

These key figures, among others, played pivotal roles in shaping the intellectual foundations of anarchism, influencing diverse strands within the broader anarchist tradition, including mutualism, collectivism, anarcho-communism, and individualist anarchism.

On a political level, anarchism has never adapted as there is no clear example of a system that is clearly based on anarchist ideas (Rojava being a possible exception).

On an academic and theoretical level, in the past, anarchist theory centered on the destruction of the state. Now, while this is still prevalent, there is more theory based on different social structures. While traditional anarchist ideologies centered on envisioning human flourishing in the absence of a centralized state, contemporary discourse reflects a shift towards the exploration and development of representative social structures that extend beyond the confines of the state. This evolution suggests a nuanced engagement with governance, emphasizing the importance of accountable and participatory frameworks, which address societal needs, while acknowledging the <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">complexities of modern interconnected communities</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Vodovnik, Ž. A “New” Anarchism? – On Bifurcation and Transformation of Contemporary Anarchist Thought and Praxis. 8 World Political Science, 2012.</div></div></span>.

The following text is based on an interview

What Is The Far Right?

The far-right political ideology originates from fascism and the nationalist ideologies at the beginning of the 20th century in Europe.

The birth of human rights as we know them today came as a direct response to the horrors of the Second World War, much of which was perpetrated in the name of the far-right ideology of fascism.

In contrast to liberals who advocate for a limited state intervention, the far right present themselves as nationalist, and so <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">the state is central to all aspects of life</span><div class="popover">Source: <br><br><div>De Witte H. On the “Two Faces” of Right-Wing Extremism in Belgium: Confronting the Ideology of Extreme Right-Wing Parties in Belgium with the Attitudes and Motives of Their Voters. 38 Res Publica 397, 1970.</div></div></span>.

The Far Right and Human Rights

As there are different kinds of far-right parties, there is a range of opinions from the far right about human rights. For example, since its creation in 2001, the far-right nationalist party in Poland — Prawo i Sprawiedliwość or Law and Justice — strongly rejects some human rights, <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">such as some women's rights, LGTBQ+ rights, and so on</span><div class="popover">Source: <br><br><div>Easton, A. Polish election: Leader targets gay rights as threat to society. BBC, 2019.</div></div></span>. 

Differently, the current far-right movement in Italy uses the discourse on human rights in a different way. In relation to immigration, instead of campaigning to address the human rights of immigrants arriving by sea, they advocate for protecting the rights of the immigrants through fighting the people who traffic them, precluding a real action in favor of <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">immigrants’ human rights in the country</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Giorgia Meloni alle Nazioni Unite: “guerra senza pietà” contro il traffico di migrant. Internazionale, 2023.</div></div></span>.

Thus, the discourse of human rights has been used (and abused) to place the blame on the traffickers rather than processing the immigrants as they arrive as required by European and Human Rights law. 

There are certain human rights that the far right traditionally supports, for example, individual rights and rights related to specific ideas of the family. Conversely, there are rights that they traditionally support less, such as LGTBQ+ rights. There has also always been a conflict between the far right and women’s right to abortion. Certainly, within the far-right perspective, resistance to certain human rights is often framed as a defense of established values, expressing concerns about the perceived erosion of tradition, conflicts between rights, the preservation of cultural identity, and fears of broader social changes. Rather than outright rejection, this stance is rooted in a perceived need to protect existing norms and values amidst <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">societal shifts</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Fasce, A and Avendaño, D. Attitudes Toward Civil Liberties and Rights Among Politically Charged Online Groups. 53 Social Psychology 233, 2022.</div></div></span>.

The far-right ideology doesn't respect cultural relativism because these movements are very nationalistic. For them, it is the responsibility of the minority to change in order to become more like the majority. This process is commonly known as <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">cultural assimilation</span><div class="popover">Source: <br><br><div>Gardell, M. The Barbarian in Rome and the Cultural Relativism Debate. Springer, 2018.</div></div></span>.

The Far Right Over Time

The far right has undergone notable transformations over time, adapting to changing political landscapes and societal dynamics. Historically, movements associated with the far right have emerged in response to economic uncertainties, cultural shifts, and perceived threats to traditional values. From early nationalist movements in the 19th century to the rise of populist and anti-immigrant sentiments in recent decades, the far right has demonstrated resilience and flexibility in its <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">ideologies</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Pirro, A, Pietro C and Caterina, F. Far-right contentious politics in times of crisis: between adaptation and transformation. Journal of European Public Policy, 2024.</div></div></span>.

In the aftermath of World War II, the far right faced a period of marginalization due to the stigma associated with fascist ideologies. However, it experienced a resurgence in the latter part of the 20th century, marked by the emergence of populist leaders, anti-globalization sentiments, and a focus on immigration issues. The far right has capitalized on economic anxieties and identity politics, often presenting itself as a voice against perceived elite establishments. 

The 21st century has witnessed the far right leveraging digital platforms to disseminate its ideologies and connect with like-minded individuals globally. Movements characterized by nationalism, anti-globalism, and anti-immigrant sentiments have gained traction in various parts of the world. These movements often incorporate fears of cultural change and economic instability, contributing to their appeal among certain demographics. This appeal is linked to a need for the protection of national cultural identity and the fear of cultural/ethnic changes and economic threats in the context of profound <span class="span"><span id=hint class="box-source">economic/political and social crises</span><div class="popover">Source:<br><br><div>Pirro, A, Pietro C and Caterina, F. Far-right contentious politics in times of crisis: between adaptation and transformation. Journal of European Public Policy, 2024.</div></div></span>.

It's essential to note the diversity within the far-right spectrum. It ranges from populist movements with electoral success to more extremist and fringe groups. The far right's ideologies can vary, encompassing nationalism, nativism (prioritizing ‘native-born’ residents), authoritarianism, and anti-globalization sentiments. The movement's adaptability and ability to respond to social and economic anxieties underscore its continued relevance in contemporary political landscapes.